10 Best 1st Century Authors Who Shaped Literature and Philosophy

Discover the most influential writers of the 1st century CE who laid the foundations for Western literature, philosophy, and historical writing.

The 1st century CE stands as one of the most remarkable periods in literary history, producing authors whose works continue to influence writers, thinkers, and readers nearly two millennia later. This era, spanning roughly from 1 to 100 CE, witnessed the height of the Roman Empire under emperors like Augustus, Nero, and Trajan, while Greek intellectual traditions continued to flourish. The century produced masterpieces of poetry, history, philosophy, and drama that established many of the literary forms and themes we recognize today.

What makes 1st century literature particularly fascinating is its position at the crossroads of cultures and ideas. Greek literary traditions merged with Roman political and social concerns, while emerging Christian thought began to influence narrative and philosophical writing. Authors of this period grappled with questions of power, morality, love, and human nature that remain as relevant today as they were two thousand years ago.

Table of Contents

Best 1st Century Authors You Should Read

1. Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro), 70-19 BCE

Though Virgil died in 19 BCE, his masterwork The Aeneid was completed and published in the early 1st century CE, making his influence paramount during this period. Born near Mantua in northern Italy, Virgil became the most celebrated poet of the Augustan age and arguably the greatest Latin poet of all time. His work synthesized Greek literary traditions with Roman values and political aspirations, creating a uniquely Roman epic that rivaled Homer’s works in scope and artistry.

Virgil’s genius lay in his ability to create literature that served both artistic and political purposes without sacrificing either. The Aeneid functions simultaneously as a thrilling adventure story, a profound meditation on duty and sacrifice, and a sophisticated piece of imperial propaganda that legitimized Augustus’s rule by tracing Roman origins back to the Trojan hero Aeneas.

The Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas’s journey from fallen Troy to Italy, where he establishes the foundations of what will become Rome. The epic is divided into two parts: the first six books detail Aeneas’s wanderings and adventures (modeled on Homer’s Odyssey), while the final six books describe his wars in Italy (echoing the Iliad). The poem’s famous opening line, “I sing of arms and the man,” announces its dual focus on warfare and individual heroism.

What sets Virgil apart from his Greek predecessors is his psychological complexity and his understanding of the costs of empire-building. Aeneas is a reluctant hero, driven by duty (pietas) rather than personal glory, and the poem repeatedly emphasizes the tragic losses that accompany even necessary victories. The most famous episode, Aeneas’s abandonment of Dido in Book IV, exemplifies Virgil’s ability to create morally complex situations where duty and personal happiness conflict irreconcilably.

Virgil’s other major works include the Georgics, four books of poetry about farming that transform agricultural instruction into profound meditations on humanity’s relationship with nature, and the Eclogues, pastoral poems that established the conventions of the pastoral genre in Western literature. You might be interested in exploring more classical literature, such as best books by Homer).

“Fortune favors the bold” (Audentes fortuna iuvat)

Virgil, The Aeneid

2. Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), 43 BCE - 17/18 CE

Ovid represents the sophisticated, cosmopolitan side of 1st century Roman literature. Born into a wealthy equestrian family, he was educated in rhetoric and law but chose poetry over politics, becoming one of Rome’s most popular and influential poets. His career was dramatically cut short in 8 CE when Emperor Augustus exiled him to Tomis (modern-day Romania) for reasons that remain mysterious—possibly related to his erotic poetry and involvement in a scandal concerning Augustus’s granddaughter Julia.

Ovid’s greatest achievement, Metamorphoses, is a 15-book epic poem that weaves together over 250 mythological stories connected by the theme of transformation. Written in elegant elegiac couplets, the work traces the history of the world from creation to the deification of Julius Caesar, demonstrating Ovid’s encyclopedic knowledge of Greek and Roman mythology and his unparalleled skill at narrative verse.

What makes Metamorphoses extraordinary is Ovid’s psychological insight into human nature and his ability to find contemporary relevance in ancient myths. His retelling of familiar stories—from Daphne’s transformation into a laurel tree to escape Apollo’s pursuit, to Narcissus falling in love with his own reflection—emphasizes the emotional and psychological dimensions of these tales in ways that feel remarkably modern.

Ovid’s Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love) offers sophisticated, often satirical advice on seduction and romantic relationships, while his Heroides presents fictional letters from mythological heroines to their absent lovers, pioneering the psychological exploration of female characters in classical literature. His exile poetry, collected in Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, provides poignant reflections on loss, separation, and the relationship between art and politics.

Ovid’s influence on later literature cannot be overstated. His versions of mythological stories became the standard references for countless later authors, from Chaucer and Shakespeare to contemporary writers. His understanding of love as both creative and destructive force, his interest in transformation and identity, and his sophisticated narrative techniques established him as one of literature’s great innovators.

“I see the better way and approve it, but I follow the worse” (Video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor)

Ovid, Metamorphoses

3. Seneca the Younger (Lucius Annaeus Seneca), 4 BCE - 65 CE

Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born in Corduba (modern Córdoba), Spain, to a wealthy rhetorical family. He became one of Rome’s most influential Stoic philosophers, a successful politician, and the tutor and advisor to Emperor Nero. His life ended dramatically when Nero ordered him to commit suicide following accusations of involvement in a conspiracy against the emperor, which Seneca faced with the philosophical composure his writings advocated.

Seneca’s philosophical works represent the most accessible and practical application of Stoic philosophy in ancient literature. Unlike earlier Stoic writers who focused on abstract logical problems, Seneca concentrated on ethical questions and practical wisdom for daily life. His Letters to Lucilius (Epistulae Morales) consists of 124 letters offering advice on how to live virtuously and achieve inner peace regardless of external circumstances.

The Letters cover topics ranging from friendship and time management to death and the proper attitude toward wealth and power. Seneca’s approach is remarkably modern in its psychological sophistication and practical applicability. He advocates for mindfulness, self-examination, and the cultivation of inner resources that can sustain individuals through life’s inevitable challenges and changes.

Seneca also wrote nine surviving tragedies, including Medea, Phaedra, and Thyestes, which differ markedly from Greek tragedies in their focus on psychological horror and internal conflict. These plays influenced Renaissance dramatists, particularly in their exploration of extreme passion and moral corruption. His prose works include On Anger, On Clemency, and On the Happy Life, each offering systematic examination of specific philosophical problems.

What makes Seneca particularly valuable for modern readers is his understanding of the gap between philosophical ideals and human reality. He acknowledges the difficulty of living according to philosophical principles while maintaining wealth, political power, and social position. This tension between theory and practice gives his work a psychological complexity and honesty that sets it apart from more doctrinaire philosophical writing.

Seneca’s influence extended far beyond antiquity. His works were widely read during the Renaissance and continue to influence contemporary discussions of ethics, psychology, and leadership. Modern readers find in Seneca a practical guide to resilience, emotional regulation, and finding meaning in challenging circumstances.

“It is not that we have a short time to live, but that we waste a lot of it” (Non est quod tam breve tempus habeamus, sed quod multum ex eo perdamus)

Seneca, On the Shortness of Life

4. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), 23-79 CE

Gaius Plinius Secundus, known as Pliny the Elder, represents the encyclopedic ambition of 1st century Roman scholarship. Born into an equestrian family in northern Italy, he pursued a military and administrative career while maintaining an insatiable intellectual curiosity that led him to compile what may be the most comprehensive work of natural science from the ancient world.

Pliny died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE while attempting to rescue friends and investigate the phenomenon—a death that epitomizes his lifelong commitment to learning and helping others. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, provides a moving account of his uncle’s final hours and his dedication to both knowledge and human compassion.

Natural History (Naturalis Historia) consists of 37 books covering an enormous range of topics: cosmology, geography, anthropology, zoology, botany, medicine, mineralogy, and art history. The work represents the most ambitious attempt in ancient literature to catalogue and explain the natural world, drawing from over 2,000 sources and covering everything from the behavior of elephants to the properties of precious stones.

What makes Pliny’s work remarkable is not just its scope but its method. He approaches his subjects with systematic organization and critical evaluation of sources, often noting when authorities disagree and acknowledging the limitations of his own knowledge. While modern science has superseded many of his conclusions, his methodological approach and intellectual curiosity remain admirable and influential.

The Natural History also provides invaluable insights into Roman daily life, technology, and cultural attitudes. Pliny’s discussions of art and artists preserve information about works and techniques that would otherwise be lost, while his accounts of geographic regions and their inhabitants offer unique perspectives on the extent and diversity of the Roman world.

Beyond its scientific content, the work reveals Pliny’s philosophical outlook: a deep appreciation for nature’s complexity and beauty, concern for human welfare, and belief in the value of knowledge for its own sake. His wonder at natural phenomena and his ethical concerns about human impact on the environment feel remarkably contemporary.

Pliny’s influence on medieval and Renaissance scholarship was enormous. His work remained a primary source for natural science until the scientific revolution, and his approach to systematic investigation and source evaluation helped establish methodological standards for later scholarship.

“In wine there is truth” (In vino veritas)

Pliny the Elder, Natural History

5. Tacitus (Publius Cornelius Tacitus), 56-120 CE

Publius Cornelius Tacitus stands as perhaps the greatest historian of the Roman Empire and one of the most penetrating political analysts in all of ancient literature. Born into a provincial family, he rose through the ranks of Roman society to become consul and one of the empire’s most respected orators. His historical works provide not only detailed accounts of crucial periods in Roman history but also sophisticated analysis of power, corruption, and human nature.

Tacitus wrote during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, a period of relative stability that allowed him to reflect critically on the tumultuous decades of the Julio-Claudian and Flavian dynasties. His works demonstrate both the advantages and the psychological costs of imperial rule, offering insights into political psychology that remain relevant to any analysis of power and governance.

The Annals covers the period from the death of Augustus (14 CE) to the death of Nero (68 CE), focusing particularly on the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. Tacitus’s portraits of these emperors are masterpieces of psychological analysis, showing how absolute power corrupts not only those who wield it but entire societies. His account of Nero’s reign, including the Great Fire of Rome and the persecution of Christians, provides crucial historical evidence while demonstrating his literary skill at creating dramatic narrative from historical events.

The Histories (of which only the first four books survive) covers the civil wars following Nero’s death and the establishment of the Flavian dynasty. Here, Tacitus demonstrates his ability to analyze complex political and military situations while maintaining focus on individual character and motivation.

Tacitus’s smaller works include Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law that doubles as an analysis of Roman imperialism and its effects on both conquerors and conquered, and Germania, an ethnographic study of Germanic tribes that offers implicit criticism of Roman society through comparison with supposedly “barbarian” peoples.

What sets Tacitus apart from other ancient historians is his psychological sophistication and his understanding of how individual character and broader historical forces interact. He excels at showing how personal ambitions, fears, and moral choices shape historical events, while also demonstrating how political systems and social pressures influence individual behavior.

Tacitus writes with a distinctive style characterized by compressed expression, pointed observations, and memorable epigrams. His prose combines the precision of legal training with the eloquence of oratorical skill, creating a voice that is both authoritative and engaging.

Modern historians value Tacitus not only for his factual accuracy (which is generally reliable) but for his methodological approach and analytical insights. His understanding of propaganda, political manipulation, and the psychology of tyranny provides valuable perspectives on power relationships in any era.

“Power is revealed more by what it destroys than by what it creates” (Plus in damno quam in praesidio virium)

Tacitus, The Annals

6. Plutarch (Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus), 46-120 CE

Plutarch of Chaeronea represents the continuation of Greek intellectual tradition within the Roman Empire. Born in Boeotia during the reign of Claudius, he lived through the height of Roman imperial power while maintaining deep connections to Greek culture and philosophy. His works bridge the gap between Greek and Roman thought, offering sophisticated analyses of character, leadership, and moral philosophy that influenced Western literature for centuries.

Plutarch’s most famous work, Parallel Lives (also known as Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans), consists of biographical pairs comparing Greek and Roman historical figures. These include comparisons such as Alexander the Great with Julius Caesar, Demosthenes with Cicero, and Theseus with Romulus. The work was designed to demonstrate that Greek and Roman civilizations had produced equally admirable leaders and to provide moral instruction through historical example.

What makes Plutarch’s biographies extraordinary is his focus on character analysis rather than mere chronological narrative. He explicitly states that he writes biography, not history, and that his goal is to reveal the moral character of his subjects through careful selection of significant actions and saywords. This approach allows him to create psychologically complex portraits that feel remarkably modern in their attention to personality, motivation, and moral development.

Plutarch’s method involves gathering anecdotes, speeches, and incidents that illuminate character rather than simply recording major political or military events. His famous statement that “a slight thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of character than battles where thousands fall” reflects his understanding that personality is often revealed more clearly in small moments than in grand gestures.

The Moralia, Plutarch’s collection of essays and dialogues on philosophical, religious, and ethical topics, demonstrates his breadth of interests and his ability to make complex philosophical ideas accessible to general readers. Topics range from “On Listening to Lectures” and “On Talkativeness” to “On the Delays of Divine Vengeance” and “On the Face in the Moon.”

Plutarch’s influence on later literature was enormous. His biographies provided source material for Shakespeare’s Roman plays (Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus), and his approach to biographical writing influenced countless later biographers. His combination of moral instruction with engaging narrative established a template for biographical writing that persists today.

Modern readers appreciate Plutarch’s psychological insight, his ability to create compelling narrative from historical sources, and his moral seriousness combined with human understanding. His works offer both historical information and timeless insights into leadership, character, and human nature.

“The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be kindled”

Plutarch, Moralia

7. Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), 38-104 CE

Marcus Valerius Martialis, known simply as Martial, brought wit, social observation, and poetic craftsmanship to the epigram, transforming what had been primarily a form for epitaphs and dedications into a sophisticated medium for social commentary and literary entertainment. Born in Bilbilis, Spain, he came to Rome around 64 CE and spent most of his adult life observing and commenting on Roman society from the perspective of a provincial trying to make his way in the imperial capital.

Martial’s twelve books of epigrams contain nearly 1,200 poems ranging from two lines to several dozen, covering every aspect of Roman life from the sublime to the ridiculous. His work provides an unparalleled view of daily life in 1st century Rome, including details about social customs, economic relationships, entertainment, food, housing, and personal relationships that are preserved nowhere else in ancient literature.

What sets Martial apart from other ancient poets is his democratic approach to subject matter and his psychological realism. While epic poets celebrated heroes and gods, Martial wrote about ordinary people: the pretentious dinner host, the social climber, the unfaithful wife, the stingy patron, the incompetent doctor. His poems capture the full spectrum of human types and behaviors with an accuracy and humor that make his work feel remarkably contemporary.

Martial’s technical skill in handling the epigram form is unsurpassed. He perfected the technique of building tension through the body of a poem and then releasing it with a surprising or witty conclusion. His ability to compress complex social observations into memorable couplets demonstrates both his poetic craftsmanship and his understanding of human nature.

The range of Martial’s work is extraordinary. He can move from savage satire to tender expressions of friendship, from obscene humor to touching elegies for dead children, from social criticism to genuine appreciation for simple pleasures. This versatility reflects both his poetic skill and his humane understanding of life’s complexity.

Martial’s influence on later literature was substantial. His approach to the epigram was imitated throughout the Renaissance and beyond, and his social realism influenced satirical writers from Juvenal to modern practitioners of light verse. His work also provides modern historians with invaluable information about Roman social life and cultural attitudes.

Modern readers appreciate Martial’s humor, his social insight, and his ability to find poetry in everyday life. His work demonstrates that great literature can emerge from careful observation of ordinary experience and that wit and wisdom often go hand in hand.

“Each day is the pupil of the yesterday” (Discipulus est prioris posterior dies)

Martial, Epigrams

8. Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), 35-100 CE

Marcus Fabius Quintilianus represents the highest achievement of Roman educational theory and rhetorical instruction. Born in Calagurris, Spain, he became Rome’s most distinguished teacher of rhetoric and the tutor to Emperor Domitian’s heirs. His Institutio Oratoria (The Orator’s Education) stands as the most comprehensive and influential work on education and public speaking from the ancient world.

Quintilian’s approach to education was remarkably progressive for his time. He advocated for treating students with kindness rather than harsh punishment, argued for the importance of understanding individual learning styles, and emphasized the development of character alongside intellectual skills. His educational philosophy influenced pedagogical theory for centuries and continues to inform modern discussions of effective teaching.

Institutio Oratoria consists of twelve books covering every aspect of rhetorical education from early childhood through advanced professional practice. The work addresses not only techniques of public speaking but also broader questions of education, literature, and moral development. Quintilian argues that the ideal orator must be not only skilled in language but also morally good, combining technical expertise with ethical character.

What makes Quintilian’s work particularly valuable is his systematic approach to learning and his understanding of rhetoric as both art and practical skill. He provides detailed analysis of literary works, explaining why certain authors and techniques are effective and how students can learn from their examples. His literary criticism of Greek and Roman authors provides invaluable insights into ancient literary taste and pedagogical method.

Quintilian’s discussion of style, invention, arrangement, memory, and delivery established the framework for rhetorical instruction that persisted through the Renaissance. His analysis of figures of speech, methods of proof, and techniques for engaging audiences influenced not only orators but also poets, dramatists, and prose writers for centuries.

Beyond its technical content, Institutio Oratoria reveals Quintilian’s humane approach to education and his belief in human potential. He argues that most people can achieve competence in speaking and writing if properly taught, and he emphasizes the importance of adapting instruction to individual needs and abilities.

Modern educators and communication specialists continue to find value in Quintilian’s insights into learning, motivation, and effective communication. His understanding of the relationship between speaker and audience, his analysis of persuasive techniques, and his emphasis on ethical responsibility remain relevant to contemporary discussions of rhetoric and education.

“When we cannot hope for perfection, we must aim for improvement”

Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria

9. Josephus (Titus Flavius Josephus), 37-100 CE

Josephus occupies a unique position in 1st century literature as both participant in and chronicler of one of the most significant events of the era: the Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE) and the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Born Joseph ben Matityahu into a priestly family in Jerusalem, he initially fought against Rome but later became a Roman citizen and historian, taking the name Titus Flavius Josephus.

Josephus’s complex personal history—Jewish priest turned Roman apologist—gives his works a unique perspective that combines insider knowledge of Jewish culture and religion with understanding of Roman political and military systems. This dual perspective, while sometimes creating tensions in his narratives, provides modern readers with unparalleled insights into the clash between Jewish and Roman civilizations.

The Jewish War (Bellum Judaicum) provides the most detailed account of the revolt against Rome, including the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple. Josephus writes as both historian and eyewitness, describing military tactics, political maneuvering, and religious motivations with remarkable detail. His account of the siege of Masada and the mass suicide of its defenders has become one of the most famous episodes in ancient history.

Jewish Antiquities (Antiquitates Judaicae) traces Jewish history from the creation of the world to the outbreak of the revolt against Rome. This twenty-book work was intended to explain Jewish culture and religion to Roman readers while demonstrating the antiquity and respectability of Jewish traditions. The work includes valuable information about Jewish customs, religious practices, and historical events that is preserved nowhere else.

What makes Josephus particularly important for modern readers is his role as a bridge between Jewish and Greco-Roman literary traditions. He writes in Greek for Roman audiences about Jewish subjects, creating works that combine historical narrative with ethnographic description and apologetic argument. His works preserve crucial information about Second Temple Judaism and provide essential background for understanding early Christianity.

Josephus’s literary style combines elements of Greek historiography with biblical narrative techniques, creating works that are both informative and engaging. His ability to explain Jewish customs and beliefs to non-Jewish readers while maintaining respect for his cultural heritage demonstrates considerable literary and diplomatic skill.

Modern historians value Josephus not only for his factual information (though his accounts must be evaluated critically) but for his insights into cultural conflict, religious identity, and the challenges of living between two worlds. His works illuminate the complex relationships between conquered peoples and imperial powers in ways that remain relevant to contemporary discussions of cultural identity and political resistance.

“It is better to suffer wrong than to do it”

Josephus, Against Apion

10. Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus), 61-113 CE

Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secondus, known as Pliny the Younger to distinguish him from his uncle Pliny the Elder, provides modern readers with the most intimate and detailed view of educated Roman life during the height of the empire. Born into a wealthy family in northern Italy, he was adopted by his uncle and inherited both his name and his literary interests, though his talents lay in different directions.

Pliny’s surviving correspondence consists of nine books of carefully crafted letters addressed to friends, colleagues, and family members, plus a tenth book containing his official correspondence with Emperor Trajan during his governorship of Bithynia-Pontus. These letters were clearly written with publication in mind and represent some of the finest examples of Latin prose style.

What makes Pliny’s letters extraordinary is their combination of literary sophistication with genuine human warmth and social observation. Unlike many ancient authors who focus on public affairs and heroic deeds, Pliny writes about the daily experiences of the Roman upper class: dinner parties, literary readings, legal cases, villa life, friendships, and family relationships.

Pliny’s most famous letters include his account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and his uncle’s death, his description of his villa at Laurentinum, his correspondence about the persecution of Christians, and his tribute to his wife Calpurnia. These letters provide invaluable historical information while demonstrating Pliny’s skill at combining factual reporting with personal reflection and elegant expression.

The letters reveal Pliny as a generous friend, devoted husband, conscientious administrator, and passionate lover of literature. His enthusiasm for reading and writing, his support for younger authors, and his delight in literary discussion make him an appealing figure who bridges the gap between ancient and modern literary sensibilities.

Pliny’s correspondence with Trajan offers unique insights into imperial administration and the relationship between emperor and provincial governor. These letters illuminate practical problems of governance, legal procedures, and social policy in ways that formal historical works often overlook.

Modern readers appreciate Pliny’s letters for their human interest, historical value, and literary excellence. His ability to find significance in everyday experiences and his talent for elegant expression make his work both informative and genuinely enjoyable to read. His letters demonstrate that some aspects of human experience—friendship, love, ambition, loss—remain remarkably consistent across centuries and cultures.

“Nothing is more unbecoming to a wise man, or ought to be more guarded against, than to allow himself to be guided by the applause or criticism of the multitude”

Pliny the Younger, Letters

Why These Authors Matter Today

The authors of the 1st century CE created works that transcend their historical moment to address universal human concerns. Their exploration of power and corruption, love and loss, duty and desire, and the search for meaning and virtue speaks directly to contemporary readers grappling with similar challenges in their own lives and societies.

These writers also established many of the literary forms and techniques that continue to shape literature today. Virgil’s psychological complexity, Ovid’s narrative innovation, Seneca’s practical philosophy, Tacitus’s political analysis, and Plutarch’s biographical method all contributed to the development of literary traditions that persist in contemporary writing.

Reading 1st century authors offers modern readers several unique benefits. First, it provides historical perspective on contemporary issues by showing how earlier societies grappled with similar problems. Second, it demonstrates the continuity of human experience across cultures and centuries. Finally, it offers access to works of extraordinary literary merit that reward careful reading with both intellectual insight and aesthetic pleasure.

Finding Your Entry Point

If you’re interested in epic poetry and heroic themes, start with Virgil’s Aeneid. For wit and social observation, try Martial’s Epigrams. Those drawn to historical analysis should begin with Tacitus’s Annals, while readers interested in practical philosophy will find Seneca’s Letters immediately applicable to modern life.

For those fascinated by biography and character study, Plutarch’s Lives offers unparalleled psychological insight into historical figures. Readers interested in the intersection of literature and natural science should explore Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, while those seeking insights into daily life in the ancient world will find Pliny the Younger’s Letters both informative and entertaining.

The key to approaching 1st century literature is understanding that these authors wrote for educated, cosmopolitan audiences who appreciated both intellectual sophistication and literary artistry. Their works reward patient reading and offer insights that deepen with familiarity, making them ideal companions for readers seeking literature that combines entertainment with enlightenment.